Kris Henning, Angela Jones and Robert Holdford studied attributions made by both male and female domestic violence offenders. They compared 1,267 men and 159 women convicted of domestic violence (in a heterosexual relationship) on a variety of measures of attributions of blame, denial and minimization, and social desirability. Most of the sample identified themselves as African-American (84.4%), with a mean age of 32.8 (SD = 9.4). Most were dating (mean length of relationship = 6.1 years; SD = 6.2) and nearly half (49.1%) had children with the victim of domestic violence.  Male and female offenders appear to be more similar than different when it comes to attributions of blame, denial and minimization, and social desirability. For example, both male and female offenders attribute greater blame for their offense to their partner than to themselves. When men did identify selfblame considerations, it was usually in the area of problems controlling anger or a lack of commitment to the relationship. Women also tended to endorse the item, suggesting difficulty with controlling anger as well as jealousy, noting that these contributed to their violent behaviors.

Similarly, many male and female offenders minimize or deny the offense occurred. Twenty-one percent of offenders denied that there was an argument during the events that led to their arrest. Over 80% of the offenders also “felt that the situation was blown out of proportion and [70.3% felt] that the police made the incident sound worse than it really was” (p. 136). Finally, both male and female offenders displayed social desirability when going through court-ordered evaluations. research digest Violence and Domestic Abuse What is particularly interesting about this study is that while we have much more data on male domestic violence offenders, we have relatively little on female domestic violence offenders. Both male and female offenders “used multiple methods to deny, minimize, and justify the offenses for which they were arrested” (p. 136). Christian counselors can certainly value research that can help us take the next step in identifying ways in which minimization, denial, and so on may play a role in treatment compliance, offenders’ behavior, and recidivism rates. There is a great need to study these attributions to assist in targeting them throughout treatment.

Recalling Victimization   Gatz, M. Russell, L.A., Grady, J., Kram- Fernandez, D., Clark, C., Marshall, B. (2005). Women’s recollections of victimization, psychological problems, and substance use. Journal of Community Psychology, 33 (4), 479-493.   Drawing on data from the women, Co-Occurring Disorders and Violence Study, Margaret Gatz and her colleagues report on the experience and consequences of physical and sexual abuse among more than 2,700 women. The age range of the participants was 18 to 73 (M = 36.4; SD = 8.8). Nearly half of the sample was white (49.8%, while 27.7 were black and 18.1% were Latino). The majority of participants (71%) reported abuse that occurred prior to age 18, and earlier reports of abuse were correlated with greater severity of current emotional distress.

Typically, age of reported physical and sexual abuse also preceded (for 32.8%) or emerged at the same time (34.6%) as reported substance use. As was noted, reported abuse prior to adulthood predicted higher levels of current distress, and Christian counselors can certainly see the value in prevention and early identification to address emotional distress and related mental health concerns that may follow a victim into adulthood.    Predicting Physical Aggression  Linder, J.R. & Collins, W.A. (2005). Parent and peer predictors of physical aggression and conflict management in romantic relationships in early adulthood. Journal of Family Psychology, 19 (2), 252-262. Jennifer Ruh Linder and Andrew Collins published a study on the predictors of physical violence in the context of intimate relationships.

The researchers analyzed data from 121 participants (63 female, 58 male from a larger sample of 180 individuals involved in the Minnesota Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children) who were followed from birth to 23 years of age, looking at familial and extrafamilial relationships and experiences associated with violence in early adulthood. Most of the participants were raised by single parents. Concerning race, 67.8% identified as European American, 9.9% as African-American, 2.5% as Native American, and 15.7% as mixed racial background.  Early childhood abuse was determined from semistructured interviews, various items from scales, and involvement with child protection services. Predictors of intimate relationship violence in early adulthood included early childhood abuse and observation of parental relationship violence. Also, the quality of the parent-child relationship during the adolescent years predicted early relationship violence and also “was a more consistent predictor of physical aggression and conflict management” (p. 260).

Peer relationships also predicted romantic aggression. Ratings of higher quality peer relationships at age 16 were related to lower levels of both perpetration and victimization in early romantic relationships. Christian counselors can see the value of predicting physical aggression in romantic relationships. Other studies have shown that early relationship violence typically leads to increased relationship violence without intervention, and it is important to identify the best predictors of early violence so that preventative measures can be taken.    Screening for Domestic Violence  Samuelson, S.L., & Campbell, C.D. (2005). Screening for domestic violence: Recommendations based on a practice survey. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 36 (3), 276-282.Sarah Samuelson and Clark Campbell of George Fox University conducted a study to ask whether psychologists screen for domestic violence. The survey questionnaire was sent to 300 licensed psychologists who were members of the American Psychological Association.

One hundred twenty-eight responded yielding a 43% return rate. Samuelson and Campbell asked a number of questions regarding screening for domestic violence, including questions related to perceived barriers. Of the 12 potential barriers listed, the top five were: (1) unwillingness on the part of the client to discuss domestic violence; (2) lack of training on the part of the clinician; (3) concern that the screening might overwhelm the client; (4) lack of time during the intake session; and (5) questions about domestic violence seemed either awkward or intrusive to the clinician. Concerning current screening practices, the most frequently endorsed item was “Screen during the course of treatment if suspect it could be an issue” (p. 278). This item was endorsed by 26.6% of respondents. The researchers noted that although 95% of respondents agreed that they are responsible to assist victims of domestic violence, fewer than 19% indicated that they regularly screen for domestic violence.  Based on other studies that suggest women prefer health care providers who directly ask about issues of safety, it may be helpful to have Christian counselors be more intentional about a screening practice that regularly considers assessment of safety and risk for domestic violence.

Predictors of Child Abuse Potential & Military Parents Schaeffer, C.M., Alexander, P.C., Bethke, K., & Kretz, L.S. (2005). Predictors of child abuse potential among military parents: Comparing mothers and fathers. Journal of Family Violence, 20 (2), 123-129.  This study by Cindy Schaeffer and her colleagues includes a relatively large sample of fathers (n = 175) and mothers (n = 590) of children (birth to six years of age) enrolled in an armed-services-sponsored home visitation program. Most of the fathers were active-duty (93%), while only 16% of the mothers were active- duty. The mean age of participants was 26.4 years (SD = 5.6) for fathers and 24.4 years (SD = 5.2) for mothers.

The majority of participants were married (92% of fathers; 88% of mothers). Just over half (54%) of the participants had one child, while 29% reported having two childre and 16% indicated having three or more children. Findings suggest both common and unique predictors of child abuse potential by gender. Child abuse potential for both fathers and mothers was predicted by depression, parental distress and family conflict. Low family expressiveness was unique to predicting child abuse potential for fathers; while for mothers it was marital dissatisfaction, low family cohesiveness and low social support. It is important that we continue in our understanding of what places children at risk for abuse.

There appear to be both common and unique considerations among fathers and mothers, at least as suggested by this study of military parents. Perhaps future studies will help identify ways to prevent and intervene early to provide children and their parents the support and tools needed for more effective and safe parent-child relationships.    PTSD Among Partners of Abusers  Taft, C.T., Murphy, C.M., King, L.A., Dedeyn, J.M., & Musser, P.H. (2005). Posttraumatic stress disorder symptomatology among partners of men in treatment for relationship abuse. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114 (2), 259-268. This is a study of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptoms among current and former partners of men who were in group treatment for partner abuse at the time of the study.

The participants were 96 women (from 124 program enrollees). The majority (63%) identified as Caucasian, followed by 31% African-American, 2% Asian, 1% Native American, and 1% Hispanic. The average age of participants was 34.0 years (SD = 8.6). The researchers calculated probable PTSD rates at baseline and one year, and more than half of the sample had probable PTSD at baseline, while nearly 30% had probable PTSD one year later. What was particularly interesting about this study was that exposure to psychological abuse “was more strongly and uniquely associated with PTSD symptoms than was exposure to physical abuse” (p. 259). Among ratings of psychological abuse, the strongest associations with PTSD symptoms were denigration, restricted engagement (i.e., to “monitor and isolate” the victim), and dominance/intimidation. Online counselor is always available to help you out.

The authors remind us that we should not take the findings to suggest, “physical abuse is less damaging or deserving of less clinical and research attention than psychological abuse” (p. 265). A number of studies already clearly document the problems associated with physical abuse. The relationships between physical and psychological abuse and PTSD symptomatology are complex and more research is needed to sort out the relationships. Not surprisingly, what appears to reduce PTSD symptoms over time is lack of exposure to psychological and physical abuse, and Christian counselors will want to be in a better position to understand the complexities in this important area of clinical intervention.  _Mark A. Yarhouse, Psy.D., is associate professor of psychology at Regent University, Virginia Beach, Virginia. He is co-author (with Lori A. Burkett) of the book, Sexual Identity: A Guide to Living in the Time Between the Times (University Press of America)._