The Islamic Ummah: Qur'anic Synopsis

Qur'anic synopsis of the Islamic Ummah

The first reading of the Islamic sources namely the Qur'anic text and the Sunnah of prophet Muhammad denotes primarily the foundations of an Islamic community.

In this perspective we can observe a synopsis of the structure and form of the Muslim community (the Ummah or Umma).

In the preceding chapter we have seen that the voluntarily and free choice for an individual person to accept and submit to the idea of one God is primordial to the adherence to the Islamic community, itself consisting of a body of those who chose to accept this idea, past, present and future. We have also discussed the notion of the covenant and how it can be ratified or disrupted. We have also briefly indicated the notion of good and bad deeds and the human role in the choice between the two. We have shown in accordance to the Qur'anic text what is the belief system of the Muslim and the consequences of man's own choice. We also discussed, within the Qur'anic text, man's responsibility toward the message and its role as a reminder, leaving the ultimate free choice to man.

In the following synopsis we shall determine primarily the Muslim's outlook and the global framework of a presumed Islamic community.

So far and from the preceding Qur'anic references we presume a structure of a theological concept of a temporal community of individuals.

Four Dimensional Relations

This very structure can be reduced, as alluded to above, in the following four-dimensional relationships.

The first relationship is the foundation that determines the other three relationships:

A. Man-God relationship.

B. Man-himself relationship.

C. Man-man relationship.

D. Man-universe relationship.

The Man-man relationship can be further developed into other sub-classification namely:

1. Political structure.
2. Social structure.
3. Economic structure.

The Muslim as an active member in the Umma is prescribed to do good and shun evil believing constantly in God. Evil comprises of thoughts, beliefs. These evil deeds can be classified in the following schema:

Man-God Relation

I. Within the framework of the Muslim-God relationship we have references to:

1. Disbelief.
2. Apostasy.
3. Doubt or scepticism.
4. Neglect of duties of worship: prayers, fasting, pilgrimage, gratitude to God, keeping God in constant remembrance in mind and heart.
5. Not fulfilling one's own duties toward God.
6. Despairing of God's mercy.
7. Impatience facing the means of tests and trials.

II. The Muslim-himself relationship:

1. Suicide.
2. Extremes of conduct

i. food:

1- Excess in eating.

2. Excess in drinking.

ii. Wealth:

1- Niggardliness

2- Spendthrift and extravagance.

c. Eating forbidden food of animals: dead meat, blood, flesh of swine, and that on which has been invoked the name of other than God, or that which has been killed by strangulation or by a violent blow (beaten to death), or by a fall, or being gored to death, or that which is partly eaten by wild animals and that which is scarified in alters.

d. Consuming, and drinking, intoxicants.

e. Gambling.

f. Lottery.

g. Arrogance, vanity and conceit.

III. The Muslim-Muslim relationship:

This relationship prescribes the type of relations among the Muslims. It comprises of political, social and economic relationships.

Political relationship:

The foundations of political relationships among Muslims constituting the political framework of the Islamic Umma are referred to in terms of ruler and governing. These relationships are based on the principle that no man can exercise power or control over another man. This concept of sharing mutually in conducting the affairs of Muslims has only been practiced once in the history of the Umma namely at the time of the Prophet in the Medinan epoch between 620 and 632 AD. The principle of mutual consultation (shura) insures equal distribution of power where the Muslim practices his responsibilities and rights fully. The decision maker is the totality of Muslims applying Shari‘a and whenever there is no reference in the Shar‘ all Muslims share equally in the decision making. The Islamic community is an absolute direct democracy.

Throughout İslamic history the one-man-rule was and still is practiced. This practice where one man whether a caliph, a sultan or an emir, a president or leader is against the precepts of Islam in form and in spirit.

The basic prerequisite to become member of the Islamic Umma is by announcing his, or her, Islam, i.e. one's acceptance of one and indivisible( in opposition to association anything with God, whether humans (e.g. Jesus Christ or other spirits or objects). The mere pronouncement of accepting one indivisible God a human being enters Islam and hence becomes automatically a member of the Islamic Umma. The individual's decision to leave Islam which is free and voluntarily, decides the end of this membership and the individual leaves the Umma

Political precepts:

The followings represent a synopsis of what the Qur'an prescribes as political relationships where Muslims are urged to apply.

It prescribes the attitudes of Muslims toward one another and the attitudes of Muslims towards non-Muslims:

1. God represents the only authority for the Muslims. There is no other thing to be taken as lord, patron or authority.

b. Muslims are the friends and protectors of one another. No other non-Muslims should be taken as friends and protectors. A pact of mutual peace with non-Muslims can be established in order to avoid hostilities.

Muslims are prescribed to avoid all other evil doings manifested in the following attitudes and actions:

a. Tumult.

b.Division.

1. Compelling non-Muslims to become Muslims.
2. Compelling Muslims to conform to Islamic belief and practice.
3. Seeking highness, such as power dominance, glory, position and prestige.
4. Making distinctions among Muslims such as discrimination by race, birth, class, language, background, social, economic or political strata.
5. Aggression and transgression.
6. Abstaining from fighting and spending in defensive wars against Muslims.
7. Fighting and spending efforts whether financial or otherwise in wars other than wars against Muslims.
8. Legging behind when called to fight which is incumbent on all Muslims who are able to fight.
9. Desertion in battle.
10. Not accepting treaties of peace with those who offer peace while engaging in a fight against Muslims until Muslims have the upper had.

m.Establishing treaties of friendship and cooperation with others than Muslims.

1. Breaking treaties of peace.

Social precepts:

Within the social structure of the Islamic Umma injustice and inequity are foremost among evil doings. The list of evil doings comprises of the followings:

1. Committing evil doings by breaking the commandments in the sources of Islam: the Qur'an and the Tradition of Muhammad.
2. Cooperation to do evil and transgression.
3. Murder.
4. Theft.
5. Adultery and fornication.
6. Slander.
7. Harming others or their belongingness.
8. Harming ones parents or children.
9. Treachery.
10. Bearing false witness.
11. Concealing testimony.
12. Earning an evil and then accusing an innocent of the evil deed.

m.To be unkind to:

1. Muslims and non-Muslims.
2. Parents and kin and children
3. Orphans.
4. Those who ask for money and help.
5. The poor and the needy.
6. To have fear of other things than God particularly of men.
7. To abstain from:
   1. Feeding and helping the poor.
      1. Feeding and helping the wretched.
      2. Feeding and helping the needy and the indigent.
8. To thing and act in the following evil-doings:
   1. With hostility.
      1. Inimically.
      2. With hatred.
      3. With spite.
      4. With arrogance.
      5. With insolence.
      6. Boastfully.
      7. Suspiciously.
      8. By cheating.
      9. By lying.
      10. By spying.
      11. By scandal-mongering.
      12. By backbiting.
      13. With defamation.
      14. With mockery.
      15. With jealousy.
      16. With envy.
9. Temptation and seduction among Muslims and among non-Muslims.
10. To make friends among the enemies of God.
11. To sit in the company of those who hold the signs of God (the Scriptures) in defiance and ridicule.
12. To be unjust and unkind to non-Muslims.

Economic precepts:

These political and social relationships among the Muslims and non-Muslims are complemented with the economic relationships. According to the Islam economic relationships can be resumed in the following conceptual framework. These are expressed in the negative evil doings where Muslims must avoid love and devotion to earthly life:

1. Love of wealth, money and riches.
   1. Treasuring and hoarding wealth.
   2. Monopolisation of riches.
   3. Concentration of wealth in the hands of the few or even the majority.
   4. Not circulating wealth among Muslims.
   5. Niggardliness.
   6. Extravagance and spendthrift.
   7. Usury and interest.
   8. Bribery.
   9. Fraud.
   10. Defrauding orphans.
   11. Not to fulfil contracts.
   12. Dishonesty and cheating in transactions.
   13. Disinheriting.
   14. Refraining from alms-giving.
   15. Refraining from charity.
   16. To follow charity with injury.

xviii.Exploitation.

1. Bad conditions of work.
2. Forbidden income: gambling, lottery and betting.
3. Parsimony.

Man-Universe Relation

The Muslim-universe relationship stems from man-God relationship. Muslims should not:

1. Over indulge in materialistic living. For the goods in this world serve as means to seek the benefit of the hereafter. These are means of deception and serve as material for test and trial.
2. To consider the universe as only a mechanicist-organist phenomenon, but rather the creation of one God. The universe serves as an indicator, free of proof, of the handiwork of God. Man is invited to look into the universe in order to conclude for himself whether it denotes creation of God or not. Man is confronted with the universe and lack of a proof leads him to a choice between belief and disbelief. For this, man has the free will to choose between the two options.

Two Main Principles in Islam

According to these prescriptions we can classify the Islamic precepts into two major perspectives:

B. Belief in one God.

A.Righteousness: Doing good and shunning evil

These two principal precepts consist of the covenant of the Muslim with God.

We ought to allude to denotative distinction of Islam from belief.

Islam refers to the individual who confesses by tongue his acceptance of and submission (taslim) to one God. This manifestation can be expressed by the individual and hence he enters a state of Islam. This state of verbal confession does not denote belief (Arabic:iman) in a God which is rooted in one's heart or one's mind.

Belief and Profession of Faith

The Qur'an, as well as the Hadith, makes clear distinction between the two states of attitudes, of mind and of heart.

A person maybe a Muslim or a believer or he can be both at one and the same time. A state of belief can be attained when the individual believes, through belief or faith, in one God.

The Qur'anic text indicates this difference in the following reference:

‘The Arab nomads say: ‘we believe'. Say (O Muhammad): You do not believe, but rather say: ‘We are Muslims, for belief has not entered your hearts.' 49: 14

Though reference is made to some of the Arab nomads who believed and faith has entered their hearts:

‘And of the Arab nomads there is he who believes in God and the last day.' 9: 99

Belief can be further advanced to be abelief of certainty(iman al-yaqin) where the individual's belief is firm, certain, permanent and unshakable. Reference to this certainty of belief is made in the citation:

‘Pharaoh said: ‘And what is the Lord of the worlds? (Moses) said: ‘Lord of the heavens and the earth and all that is between them, if you had but the belief of certainty.' 26: 23-24

Belief of certainty (iman al-yaqin) comes out of presumptive knowledge of certainty (‘lm al-yaqin). Knowledge of certainty is the knowledge of the mind where the mind acquires certain conviction of the existence of a thing in an intelligible manner. This belief is not subject to empirical knowledge and cannot be validated but can be attained by reasoning conviction. It is not auto-suggestion but attained by the will to believe but attained only through perception of mind and soul:

‘And in your creation and all walking creatures that He scattered in the earth, are portents for those whose belief is certain.' 45: 4

‘No, would that you know with knowledge of certainty. For you will behold hell-fire.' 102: 5

Although reason and revelation may be according to the Qur'anic argument, personal convictions of the individual decide whether they meet or not. There is no empiric method of verification. Reason is challenged by what is and it is left to the individual person to choose between belief and disbelief.

In the following conceptual synopsis we shall attempt a more detailed and more profound framework of the interrelationships of Muslims within the Islamic Umma according to the four- dimensional relationships. This model is an ideal model and serves as a ceiling to be attained by Muslims.

Man-God Relation: Duties

Within man-God relationship we observe the following attitudes:

The cornerstone of this relation is based on the purpose of the creating Man:

‘I have only created Jinn and Humans in order to worship Me.'  51:56

1. Firm, strong and lasting belief in one God.
2. Perseverance in worship and application of duties.
3. Fulfilling all duties
4. Exercising all responsibilities.
5. Expressing gratitude to God.
6. Putting one's trust in God.
7. Loving God.
8. Fearing God.
9. Having hope in God's mercy.
10. Obedience to God.
11. Piety (Taqwa).
12. Keeping the covenant of God.

m. Awareness of being watched by God.

n. Living between hope in God's mercy and fear of God (tabtil).

The Muslim- himself relationship:

Responsibility towards one's self.

1. Knowledge of Islam.
2. Awareness of rights, duties and obligations.
3. Self-restraint.
4. Self-control.
5. Patience.
6. Moderation:

i.   Eating and drinking.

ii. Voice: to keep one's voice down.

iii. Walking.

1. Self-confidence.
2. Avoid being arrogant, haughty and insolent.
3. Strength.
4. Cleanliness.

The Muslim-Muslim relationship:

1. a.The Political system

The Islamic Umma is a free coming-togetherness of individual persons by professing faith in one God. Interrelationships are founded on brotherhood, friendship, protection and cooperation. The Islamic Umma is a close interrelation of Muslims who are on equal grounds and share equally in political decisions, social status and economic resources. While the structure is highly developed in solidarity of faith, a state of peace and love should be maintained among all Muslims. The Islamic Umma comprises of all Muslims all over the globe and is a moral and physical entity.

The underlying political structure prescribed in the sources of Islam is based on the principle of equality in the distribution of decision-making in all affairs. While the only authority and reference for Muslims is God and his messages and the Tradition of His prophet, Shari‘a  applies to all Muslims. Whenever there is no reference in Shar‘(Islamic Law) and the Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) to a public matter, All Muslims come together in order to ‘share equally' together (as part of their right and responsibility) in determining a common decision by means of "Mutual Consultation".

In Islam the principle of managing public affairs is : absolute direct democracy.

1. God is the only authority to be obeyed.
2. Brotherhood of Muslims.
3. Muslims are protectors of one another.
4. Cooperation among Muslims.
5. Friendship among Muslims.
6. Equality among Muslims.
7. Mutual consultation among all Muslims in the management of affairs.
8. Unity among Muslims.
9. Shunning division.
10. Shunning tumult and rebellion.
11. Cooperating to do well and shun evil.
12. Justice.
13. Keeping God in constant remembrance.
14. Assistance and aid.

The attitude of the Islamic Umma toward non Islamic entities: It is the attitude of non-Muslims toward Muslims that is the deciding factor in the attitude of Muslims toward non-Muslims. According to Islam Muslims ought to be kind and just to non-Muslims. The Islamic sources define exactly the various attitudes of non-Muslims toward Muslims and these attitudes are taken as grounds for relationships with non-Muslims. The range of attitudes of non-Muslims is variable and can vary between extremes of love and peace and extremes of hatred and hostility and war. Every attitude of non-Muslims, whether on the individual level, group level or state level is subject to circumstances and changing conditions. While strength and preparation in force as well as distrust are prescribed towards non-Muslims, justice and non-aggression are also main attitudes.

Non-Muslims living in an Islamic state must abide by Islamic Law. They ought to pay an imposed tax (jizya) and maintain good relations with Muslims. Non-Muslims have the right to practice freely their religious beliefs but have no right to convert Muslims to their own belief systems. They have the right of protection and economic assistance like other Muslims. Non-Muslims cannot take part in the decision-making of Muslims affairs. Non-Muslims living in an Islamic state must apply their laws according to their belief systems, whether in civil affairs or criminal affairs.

Muslims living in non-Muslim territories must abide by the laws of the host country.

I. The attitude of Muslims toward non-Muslims: Non-Muslims with non-hostile attitude:

1. Justice
2. Kindness
3. Keeping treaties and agreements
4. Establishing good relationships with these entities.
5. Refraining from taking these entities in friendship and protection.
6. Refraining from making treaties unless of fear of hostilities.
7. Non-aggression (belligerence) against these entities.

II. Hostile entities that declare themselves enemies of God and enemies of Muslims because of their belief:

1. Refraining from establishing any pacts of cooperation.
2. Refraining from making treaties.
3. Refraining from having any relationships.
4. Justice.
5. Non-aggression.

III. In case of aggression by non-Muslims:

1. Defensive war (jihad)is incumbent on all Muslims. Muslims are permitted and commanded, as one of their primary duty, to fight against those who fight them are not permitted to take up arms except in war and specifically against those who take up arms against them. They are permitted to fight against those who fight them and throw them out of their homes and land.
2. Cooperative pacts are not allowed.
3. Friendship pacts are not allowed.
4. Should these entities search for peace during a war, peace should be established if all rights lost in war are restored justly to the Muslims.
5. Mistrust against hostile entities.
6. Treatment with justice is an obligation.
7. Non-aggression pacts are urged.
8. No hostage taking is permitted.
9. Prisoners of war should be treated with in the best of ways: gratis nourishing, gratis lodgings, kindly treated medical and psychological aid is applied. They are released in exchange for, honest services (like exchange of prisoners or teaching a language or a profession) unless justified reasons are presented by the prisoner (illness, needs of family). No punishment should be administered to prisoners of war. Neither humiliation, nor torture can be applied to prisoners of war.

b.   The economic system:

The economic system of the Islamic Umma prescribes a platform-ceiling solid structure of the society where extremes of poverty and riches are abolished.

The principle foundation is ‘distribution of wealth' among all Muslims.

a.   Distribution of wealth.

b.   Interdiction of monopoly and of hoarding of wealth and riches.

c. Maintaining a middle way balanced system of expenditure.

d. Honesty in transactions.

e. Mutual consent in transactions.

f. Complying by laws of inheritance.

g. Alms-giving.

h. Means of charity: Beneficiaries.

i.   The poor

ii. The needy.

iii. The indigents.

iv. The wretched.

v. Kin.

vi. Orphans.

vii. Travellers in need.

viii. Those who ask.

ix. Those that have not.

x. Those that are deprived.

xi. Those who are employed to collect and administer the funds.

Reference here is made to an administration of tax system and budgetary.

While two and a half percent is prescribed for all Muslims who are wealthy, a third percent is permissible as expenditure in charity. Muslims are urged to spend in charity in terms of hardships as well as in terms of ease. The poor and the needy have a specific portion in the wealth of those who have wealth, as a right.

xii. Those who became Muslims recently.

xiii. Those that are in bondage and in debt.

xiv. Those working in the cause of God.

xv. Prisoners of war.

1. Spending freely in the way of God whether in prosperity or in adversity.
2. Keeping to the lawful means and sources of earning money.
3. Fulfilling contracts, deals and transactions.

m.  Spending in the way of God in secret and in public.

1. Urging and encouraging spending in the way of God.
2. Spending to establish and maintain strong defensive armed forces for deterrence.
3. In case of defensive war, all possible funds must be given in the way of God.

c.    The social system

The social system in the Islamic sources depicts a personal-communal structure where equilibrium between the community interests and the individual interests is maintained.

Responsibility in Islam is personal and individual:

In the ultimate sense of the community the Qur'anic text emphasises the individual and personal responsibility: In no way the Umma is held responsible for the individual:

‘On the Day when every soul will come pleading for itself, and every soul will be repaid what it did.' 16: 111

‘Every soul is in pledge for its own deeds.' 74: 38

‘And guard yourself against a day when no soul will in aught avail another'. 33. 2: 48.

‘Each person earns only on its own account, nor does any bearer of burden bear another's load'. 44. 6: 48.

While the interests of the individual in terms of responsibility, freedom, rights and obligations are emphasised the overall harmony of the communal structure is sought as an ultimate goal of the Umma.

The Umma may comprise of Muslims in a specific geographic zone with a state system but is considered as an integral part of the global Islamic Umma. Peace in serving God as the first principle is sought in terms of equality, brotherhood, friendship, cooperation, solidarity and mutual assistance.

The social relationships among Muslims are based on the following moral code:

i.     Brotherhood.

ii.    Justice.

iii.   Equality.

iv. Friendship.

v. Solidarity.

vi. Cooperation.

vii. Social integration.

viii. Kindness and love.

ix. Enjoining what is right.

x.   Shunning what is wrong.

xi. Mutual advice to be patient, constant and have self-restraint.

xii. Mutual kindness and compassion.

xiii. Proclaiming and rehearsing the bounty of God.

xiv. Keeping God in constant remembrance.

xv. Mutual encouragement to: feed the poor, the needy and the indigents, and to be charitable.

xvi. Being kind to all humans.

xvii. Speaking fairly with a low voice.

xviii. Kindness and care to parents and children and kin.

xiv. Being kinds to neighbours near and far.

1. Applying Shar
2. Repaying trust.
3. Keeping promises and oaths.

xviii.Chastity.

1. Returning a courteous greeting in a more courteous way or merely meeting it with equal manner.
2. Meeting bad deeds with good ones through:
   1. Forgiveness.
   2. Restraint of one's anger and hatred.

IV. The Muslim-Universe relationship:

The Muslim-Universe relationship is founded on the idea that man is endowed with reason; he has a life-cycle to live; he is invited to look into the universe and he has to make a choice between belief in a creator-cause or to disbelief in such a cause. Should he choose to believe he will be recompensed with eternal felicity on a day of judgement. Should he choose to disbelieve he will be punished in the hereafter. All depends on man's choice. Every individual who is adult (adulthood is attained at puberty according to Islam) and sane is charged with the responsibility of the choice and hence the consequences.

The universe, in all its aspects, whether its enigmatic presence, origin and finality, or its realistic function as a crossing-bridge to the hereafter, becomes the subject-matter for every individual Muslim.

The Muslim is invited to look into the universe and consider whether or not it is the handiwork of a God, a Creator.

Islam has made the ‘mind' as the ‘final judge'. The natural impulse of the mind as well as reasoning is man's only tool to interact with the universe and the seat responsible for all decisions.

In the following references we have examples of this attitude:

‘Therein is indeed a portent for people who have mind (to understand).' 16: 67

‘Therein is indeed a portent for people who reflect.' 16: 69

Considering the Qur'anic text we can resume the man-universe relationship in the following manner:

a. Observing the universe in all its details.

b. Considering the probability of a creator and making a choice between belief and disbelief in this creator.

c. In case of choosing belief in a creator the universe becomes a field of study as a reference to the divine will.

d. Man's conduct becomes a motivation of tracing the divine will.

Phenomena become the object of research relating man to God:

i.   Man:

a. As a being, form and constitution, paradoxical oppositions (good and evil, love and hatred, death and life, war and peace, mortality and immortality).

b. The emergence of man, his life cycle.

c. Conditions of survival and means of sustenance

ii. Animals.

iii. Plants.

iv. Water.

v. The earth.

vi. The solar system.

vii. Galaxies.

viii. The interrelations between man and his means of survival in terms of sustenance, relativity of senses as object of reflection.

ix. The infinite interactions between man and the function of the universe in his life or his function within the framework of the universe.

These characteristics of good and evil represent in themselves the conditions of the covenant with God.

Good and Evil

Islam takes into consideration the paradoxical tension between the innate evil tendencies and the good tendencies. The battle is not easy and on this punishment and rewards are based. It is not easy to struggle against evil and to win the battle, yet man is provided with the choice and the will  to act: a paradox where man is torn between reason, will and freedom of choice.

Man is naturally equipped with faculties discerning evil and good and the distinction between the two.

The outlook of the individual in a society determines the nature and structure of the society itself. In Islam the Umma is a free- but necessary- coming togetherness of wilful individuals who have chosen to be Muslims.

If the outlook of the individual in a materialistic society is limited to worldly gains and the means to acquire them become the ultimate goal of the society. The main concern of the member of such a society is earthly benefits.  The whole structure of such a society becomes limited within the boundaries of this life. Life is considered as an end in itself and death brings an organic finality to man's being. Thus, laws, ethics, norms in such a model are limited to such a perspective.

This structure permits the individual to survive within a worldly finality and act according to this vision. In such a model man expresses himself, with all his capacities and faculties, in a materialist world. Such a model can be observed in a materialist outlook whether socialist or capitalist, where man strives in both models for the benefits of this world.

The features and characteristics of the Muslim's attitude determine the outlook and the way of life of the whole Islamic Umma. Muslims seek the benefits of the other world.

In the following chapters we shall discuss the structure of the socio-economic-political features of the Islamic Umma as depicted in the Qur'anic text, and whenever necessary, reference is made to the Sunna.

Principles of the Community

The principles of the Islamic community can be reduced to two main principles. First; Muslims are united in a free coming togetherness submitting themselves entirely to the law of God as depicted in the Qur'an and the Sunna. Secondly; Muslims are equally shared with the responsibility of the Islamic message and are equal among themselves (men and women) having the same rights and obligations.

The Islamic structure of a community, although idealist in its outlook can be pragmatically applied, as was the case in the community of Medina at the time of Muhammad.

From that particular time in Islamic history the Islamic community has deviated from the application of the medina concept of Islam and has turned away from the application of din (religion) in order to implement mulk (temporal rule). Here, and for this change, human law is applied discarding divine law.

Kingdoms, Sultanates, Emirates and Presidencies, clergy systems, were, and are still, established and the Islamic community. This has lost the foundations of religious belief.

The outcome of this deviation, according to Islam, is the departure from the law of God and the application of man's law where injustice, immorality and hatred dominate the lives of Muslims. Many are concerned with their worldly benefits and discard the basic objective of their own being mainly to believe in one indivisible God and apply His law. The basic objective of our being is the choice between the temptations of worldly life and the benefits of the hereafter. The choice is founded on, first, lack of proof for the existence of God and second on the plausibility of the Hereafter. The two founding principles are based on a promise ostensible in all scriptures.