The Islamic Ummah:The Political Structure of the Islamic Ummah
The political structure of the Islamic Ummah (or Umma), unlike other temporal political structures, is totally dependent on one's commitment to belief in God and following the moral code prescribed in the sources of Islam.
All Authority is Invested in God
All authority is vested in God. No other authority is acceptable or obeyed by Muslims. God is the sole and only lawgiver. No human being is permitted to prescribe his or her laws to the Islamic community.
This is because humans are only held responsible by God. Belief and disbelief is a personal affair between man and God where freedom and will are exercised fully. This vertical relationship is outside the control of the Umma. Communal relations on the vertical level are subject to Islamic legislation and representatives of the Islamic Umma can administer the limits of Shar‘ whenever the case applies. If a person commits a crime punishable by Shar‘, the responsibility of this person is towards God, and punishment is administered by the Islamic community represented by the administration of Muslims. The punishment administered by the representatives of the Umma should be strictly applied according to Islamic limits.
God's Law
Legislation, if not prescribed in the sources of Islam, must stem from the sources and conform to its prescriptions. Exegetes are obliged to infer legislations that conform to the spirit and form of Islamic Shari‘a before it is promulgated by the Umma.
The basics of the political aspects of Islam are mainly concerned with the Muslim's interrelations stemming from the Muslim's relation with God. The notion of rule is non-existent in Islam since man is held responsible only to God. Obedience to those who are chosen, by Muslims, to administer the affairs of the community is maintained in public affairs as long as administrators adhere strictly Islamic laws and precepts. Any infringement by the administrators from Islamic precepts renders Muslims free from obedience to these administrators until the administrators apply Islamic shari‘a. The system of checks and balances is strongly held, applied and controlled by the whole Islamic Umma.
No one person (one-man-rule), a group (civil, military or religious) or one section of Muslims (a party) is allowed to have control of power. Power is equally distributed among the whole community of Muslims. Administration of Islamic rule does not give the administrators any powers or control over Muslims. The administration body serves the community in their interests, security and affairs.
Ruling is Alien in Islam
There is no mention in the Qur'an or Hadith of the idea of rule over Muslims, nor is there any mention of the necessity for a ruler or governor that Muslims have to submit their will to him or to her. The Islamic principle calls for equality and no person has the right to rule over another. No one Muslim or a group of Muslims have the right to exercise authority or control, whether physically, psychologically, mentally or spiritually over any other Muslim or a group of Muslims or the entire Umma. The Qur'anic text denies any authority or control over the Muslims, or non-Muslims, even to messengers of God.
The function of the messengers of God, according to the Qur'an, is but to remind man with reference to belief in God and the day of reckoning and the consequence of man's deeds.
Muhammad is commanded in the Qur'anic text:
‘Therefore, give admonition, for you are one to admonish, you are not one to have control over them.' 88: 21-22.
The Qur'an denies Muhammad all forms of authority, control and compelling:
‘And you are not one to compel them by force. So admonish with the Qur'an who fears My warning.' 50: 45
Rule is denied, by way of authority, control, compelling, forcing or governing, in any form. Caliphs, sultans, emirs and other titles have developed in an ad hoc form, all alien to Islamic principles. Reward and punishment for belief or disbelief, good and bad actions, are restricted to God, whether administered in this life or in the hereafter by the divine will. Rule in the judicial sector, referring to legal judgement or arbitration, among Muslims is administered by Muslims versed in Islamic Shari‘a and the science of Tafsir (exegetic interpreting knowledge) according to Islamic law.
Although Muslims versed in the knowledge of Shari‘a are referred to in order to interpret an Islamic reference, in the Qur'an or the Tradition, they have no power none whatsoever to compel other Muslims.
There is no hierarchical structure in Islam. There is no distinction among Muslims. Distinction among Muslims, or among non-Muslims, is strictly restricted to the domain of God. It is according to men's reaction to belief in God and according to their good or bad deeds that distinction is preserved to God. These domains are not to be judged by humans.
The following texts refer to the mode of arbitration and judgement among Muslims:
‘We have sent down to you the Book in truth, that you might judge between men, as guided by God.' 4: 105
‘God commands you (O believers) to render back your trusts to those to whom they are due; and if you judge between men that you judge with justice: verily is the best of teaching which God teaches you, and God sees and hears all things.' 4: 58
Individuals, once they have accepted Islam are obliged to apply Islamic law:
‘A believer, man or woman, has no option in determining their affairs when God and His apostle decide the matter. He who disobeys God and His apostle has gone clearly astray.' 33: 36
It is clear in this reference that the command administered in the Qur'anic text is to be obeyed. But the free choice of complying with the command is left entirely to the believer himself. It is exactly in the same way where the freedom of choice of belief and disbelief are given choice to obey or disobey is also given with reference to the Muslim himself.
Authority in Man-God relationship
Islam denotes a state of knowledge. For knowledge, according to Islam, is being aware of the truth that there is one God (Christian doctrine of the trinity is denied totally in Islam as (kufr: rejection of truth). Any other state is described by Islam as ignorance. Man thus is in a state of ignorance until he becomes aware of the existence of one God and chooses to believe in God where he enters a state of knowledge. Man who is in an extra state of knowledge (‘ilm) remains in a state of ignorance (jahl) until he becomes a Muslim. A Muslim is considered in a state of knowledge because he or she is aware of the purpose of his own existence:
‘It is those who have knowledge that truly fear God amongst His servants.' 35: 28
‘Say: Are those equal those who know and those who do not know? It is those who understand that keep constant remembrance.' 39: 9
The purpose of man's existence is to acknowledge one God and apply His law in accordance with any divine scripture.
The Muslim-God relationship is a relationship of dependence: Man depends totally on God.
God as the only ruler
From this acknowledgement and total dependence stems the authority of God. The Qur'an informs us:
‘God, there is no god be He, the Lord of the Throne supreme.' 27: 26
‘Lord of the heavens and earth and all that is between them, so worship Him and be constant and patient in His worship: do you know of any who is worthy of the same name as He?' 19: 65
‘There is no god but He, He gives life and gives death, your Lord and the Lord of your earliest ancestors.' 44: 8
The Muslim considers God as his protector, trustee and ally (wali):
‘Say: ‘Shall I seek for lord other than God, when He is the Lord of all things'.' 6: 164
‘Say: ‘My worship and my sacrifice and my living and my dying are for God the Lord of the Universe.' 6: 162
And,
‘O my Lord, You are my protector in this world and in the hereafter.' 12: 101
‘Say: ‘Shall I seek for Lord other than God, and He is the Lord of all things?' 6: 164
Muslims have no other than God as protector and helper:
‘You have none, beside God, as protector or helper.' 2: 107
‘And God is the protector of those who believe.' 3: 68
Muslims are forbidden to take as protectors other than God:
‘Say: ‘Who is the Lord of the heavens and the earth?'
‘Say: ‘God', Say:' Do you then take for protectors other than Him, such as have no power either for good or for harm to themselves?'' 13: 16
Only God as a Lord
Muslims are forbidden to take each others as lords:
‘Say: ‘that we worship none but God, that we associate no partners with Him, that we do not take from among ourselves lords and patrons other than God.' 3: 64
The Qur'an forbids Muslims to take the messengers of God and the angels as lords:
‘And he does not command you to take the angels and the apostles as lords. Would he command you to disbelieve after you became Muslims?' 3: 80
Christians, according to the Qur'an, take Gabriel for the Holy Ghost and associate him with Christ and God in a Trinity. Jews and Christian have taken their rabies and their clergy as their lords. Such a practice is not permitted in Islam:
‘They took their rabbis and their monks as lords beside God, and the Messiah-son-of-Mary, but they were not commanded except to worship one God, there is no god but He. Far away is His glory from what they associate (with Him).' 9: 31
The idea of taking prophets and angels as lords, as Christians do, is denied in Islam:
‘It is not permitted for a man, to whom is given the Scriptures and wisdom, to say: ‘Be my worshippers rather than God's', but ‘be worshippers of Him.' 3: 79
‘Nor would he (the Prophet) instruct you to take angels and prophets for lords, would he bid you to disbelief after you became Muslims?' 3: 80
Muslims are strictly forbidden to take Satan as a protector and lord:
"Whoever takes Satan as a protector, forsaking God, he has suffered a manifest loss. Satan makes them promises and builds for them false desires, but Satan's promises are nothing but deception.' 4: 119- 120
The Qur'an constantly denies the Muslims to take any other thing as lords and protectors beside God:
‘There are men who take others besides God as equal with God; they love them as they should love God. But those who believe are stronger in their love for God.' 2: 165
‘The parable of those who take protectors other than God is that of the spider who builds for itself a house: but surely the weakest of houses is the spider's house, if they only new.' 29: 41
The command of God
Muslims submit themselves to the command of God only. The Qur'an informs us:
‘They have no protectors other than Him, nor does He share His command with anyone.' 18: 26
‘The command is but for God, in Him I put my trust and let those who trust put their trust in Him.' 12: 76
Muslims cannot take disbelievers as friends or trustees:
‘O you who believe, do not take for friends and trustees unbelievers rather than believers.' 4: 144
‘Those who take for friends and trustees unbelievers rather than believers: do they seek honour among them? No, all honour is with God.' 4: 139
In these verses reference is made in terms of the general to the attitude of believers towards disbelievers. Such a command is denied to Muslims even though the disbelievers are of close kinship:
‘O you who believe, do not take for friends and trustees your fathers and your brothers if they prefer disbelief to belief: if any of you takes them as such than those are the transgressors.' 9: 23
Reference in the particular is made to the Jews and the Christians, who do not believe in the Islamic message:
‘O you who believe, do not take the Jews and the Christians for friends and trustees, they are but friends and trustees of each other. And he amongst you who takes them as such is but of them.' 5: 51
Particular reference is also made to those among the People of the Book among the Jews and Christians who take the religion of Islam for mockery:
‘O you who believe, do not take for friends and trustees those who take your religion for a mockery and sport of those who received the Book before you and the disbelievers, and fear God if you are true believers.' 5: 57
Particular reference is made to those who are considered to be the enemies of God. Muslims are not allowed to take them as friends and trustees:
‘O you who believe, do not take My enemies and yours for friends and trustees, offering them love, even though they have disbelieved in the truth that has come to you.' 40: 1
In the final conclusion the Qur'anic text specifies the difference between taking those who disbelieve as friends and partners on the one hand and taking God as the only protector on the other:
‘God is the protector of those who believe, He brings them out from darkness into light, and those who reject faith their patrons are the evil ones, they lead them from light into darkness; these are the companions of the fire, therein they shall dwell forever.' 2: 257
Any other command than that of God should not be accepted by Muslims and any other judgement than that of God should be rejected by Muslims:
‘Do they then seek the judgement of ignorance, and who is, for those who believe, better in judgement than God?' 5: 53
Those who do not apply the law of God in conducting their affairs and in their private life are considered by the Qur'an as no better than the unbelievers:
‘And if anyone does not judge by what God has revealed they are no better than the unbelievers.' 5: 44
They are also considered as wrong-doers:
‘And if any do not judge by what God has revealed they are no better than wrong-doers.' 5: 45
‘And if any do not judge by what God has revealed they are no better than transgressors.' 5: 47
Muslims have no option but to apply Islamic law:
‘No believer, man or woman, when God and His Apostle decide a matter, can have an option about their decision: if any one disobeys God and His messenger, he has clearly gone astray.' 33: 36
‘The answer of the believers, when summoned to God and His messenger, in order that he (the messenger) may judge among them, is to say: "We hear and we obey", and those are the ones who will attain felicity, it is such as obey God and fear God and do what is right that will be the winners.' 24: 51-52
‘The messenger believes in what has been revealed to him from His Lord, and so do the believers, each one of them believes in God, His angels, His books, and His messengers, (and they say): "We make no distinction between one and another of His messengers", and they say: "We hear and obey, we seek Your forgiveness our Lord, and to You is the end of all."' 2: 285
Obedience is only due to God
Obedience to God's command is considered as a fulfilling part of the covenant with God:
‘O You who believe… call in remembrance the favour of God unto you, and His Covenant which he ratified with you when you said: "We hear and we obey" and fear God, for God knows the secrets of your hearts.' 5: 7
The idea of compulsion is not allowed in Islam. No Muslim may compel another person whether Muslim or non-Muslim to believe or to obey God. Muslims may invite others, whether Muslims or non-Muslims, on the way of God through good speech. We are told in the Qur'an how the message ought to be administered as an admonition and reminder and how the role of the messenger is to admonish:
‘So obey God and obey His messenger: but if you turn back, the duty of Our messenger is but to proclaim clearly the message.' 64: 12
If Muslims follow the teachings in the message they are rightly guided. But if they do not they shall be held to account for their deed:
‘Say: "Obey God and obey the messenger. But if you turn away, then (it is) for him (to do) only wherewith he has been charged, and for you (to do) only that wherewith you have been charged. If you obey him, you will go aright. And the messenger has no other charge than to convey (the message) clearly."' 24: 54
This text obviously gives the freedom of choice between obedience and disobedience. Thus, we observe that Islamic precepts should be implemented by Muslims but they always have the choice to obey or not to obey. For the real nature of the message is to remind man of what he ought to do.
Should Muslims do not take heed they are allowed to do so, for there is no compulsion in religion, despite all the responsibility they have to take and the consequences of their choice:
‘Those are the limits set by God: Those who obey God and His messenger shall be admitted to Gardens, with rivers flowing beneath to abide therein forever, and that will be the supreme achievement.' 4: 13
On the other hand, the consequences of those who disobey His commands and transgress His limits are displayed clearly in the text:
‘But those who will disobey God and His commands and His messenger and transgress His limits shall be admitted to the fire, to abide therein forever, and they shall have a humiliating punishment.' 4: 14
In Islam obedience to the messenger stems from obedience to God. The Law giver is only God. In the sources of Islam there is no one reference to Muhammad as a lawgiver.
This specific restriction of law to God is denoted in the following verse:
‘Nor does he speak (Muhammad) of (his own) desire. It is naught save an inspiration that is inspired.' 53: 3-4
The idea of prophethood in the Qur'an presents the messengers as conveyers of the divine message and not as lawgivers:
‘Their messengers said to them: "We are human like yourselves, but God grants His grace to whoever He pleases of His servants. It is not for us to bring you an authority except as God permits."' 14: 11
No other authority is given to the messengers:
‘No man, to whom is given the Book, and Wisdom and Prophethood, can say to people: "Be you my worshippers rather than God's", but he would say: "Be you worshippers of Him." 3: 79
Muhammad is considered in the Qur'an in the following manner:
‘Say: "I am but a man like you, it is revealed to me by inspiration that your God is one God: so stand true to him, and ask for His forgiveness". And woe to those who join gods with God.' 41: 6
The idea of obedience to God is expressed in terms of obedience to His messengers. For the words of the messengers as well as their deeds are inspired by God. Islam does not consider the messengers as infallible, for no man is infallible according to the Qur'an.
Muslims should comply by the command of God as revealed in the Qur'an and the Sunna conforming to Islamic Shari‘a:
‘O Believers, obey God, and obey His messenger and those who are charged with the affairs among you, But should you have a dispute concerning any matter, then refer it to God and the messenger, If you believe in God and the Last day. That is better and more suitable as an interpretation.' 4: 59
In this way the ultimate reference is God's law. Muslims share equally in the responsibility of running their affairs. All matters are settled by Islamic Shari‘a. if there are matters that are not dealt with by Shari‘a then all Muslims comprising the Islamic Umma must deal with the affairs through the principle of Shura (mutual consultation).
The concept of Shura
As discussed above the idea of rule is alien to Islam. Muslims manage their affairs whether public or private, by mutual consultation. This concept is indicated in the sources of Islam by:
A. The absence of reference to the need to establish a post of a ruler, or rulers, over the Muslims in the Qur'an and Tradition of the Prophet.
B. The absence of reference to appoint a ruler, or rulers, to run the affairs of the Islamic Umma. The Qur'an is silent on this subject and the Tradition does not indicate any such need.
C. Muhammad did not designate any ruler after him before his death neither explicitly nor implicitly. His companions chose from amongst themselves the first four Caliphs namely Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, ‘Umar Ibn al-Khattab, ‘Uthman Ibn ‘Affan and ‘Ali Ibn Abi Talib on an ad hoc basis. The Qur'an and the Sunna do prescribe any post neither by designation nor by heritage or succession in term neither of Khalifa nor of Imam, neither of Sultan nor of an Emir or a King or any form of a ruler.
Such institutions where one man decide for the Muslims their affairs is against the basic teachings of Islam. The affairs of the Muslims are run by the Muslims themselves in a mutual consultative manner in accordance to al-Shari‘a. They choose from amongst themselves responsible for all affairs whether political, economic or social and military, but the final decision is decided by all the Muslims in accordance with the Islamic Shar‘. The function of the responsible is to apply shar‘ and then the will of the majority of Muslims should there be no total consensus in accordance to Shari‘a.
This type of managing the affairs of the Umma was once fully practiced in Islamic history. This was at the time of Muhammad during the epoch of Medina 620-632 AD.
All Muslims were called upon to decide their affairs and especially regional and military affairs. The final decision was taken after consulting with all Muslims. All Muslims practiced their responsibility for the final decision where it was implemented by all. This system put into practice the idealistic model of the Islamic Umma.
However; it can be argued that the Islamic Umma was a small community and now (a community of over one billion Muslims in the world today) it is impossible to put it into practice. But even though the Umma is large and spread all over the globe, it must come together first, into consensus, and with the present stage of knowledge it allows by means of a referenda system to implement the shura principle. But the different deviations in Islam and the multiple innovations, as well as abandoning the spirit of Islam and getting attached to worldly life, impedes the realisation of such a pragmatic-idealist model. Today, the multiple divisions within the Islamic Umma does not allow for such a practice.
In Islamic history the one-man-rule has nearly destroyed the spirit of Islam in the hearts of Muslims.
The one man ruler has proven an unjust imposition of personal individualistic will, often temporal and egoist in nature, depriving Muslims from their rights and responsibilities in managing the affairs of the entire Umma.
The underlying bases of the concept of Shura are that All Muslims contribute equally to the running of their community affairs. The Qur'anic text is clear on this. The text does not indicate a ruler with a clique of advisors, It does not either indicate a ‘counsel' of few Muslims, It does not refer to one section of Muslims ruling over the others. It does not refer to a minority or a majority, but the reference is in the total general implicating every Muslim.
The Qur'anic text prescribing the principle of shura defines the idea of managing the Umma's affairs in the following terms:
‘Those who believe…and those who answer the call of their Lord and establish prayers and conduct their affairs by mutual consultation (amruhum shura baynahum), and who spend of what We have bestowed on them.' 42: 36, 38
In this text the address is made to All Muslims without exception. Neither the Qur'an nor the Hadith defines or prescribes a specific system of rule. Administrative systems are chosen by Muslims from amongst themselves and obedience is due to such bodies of administration. This does not mean that the choice is open to establish any other institution than the ‘mutual counselling' system. The Qur'an constantly rejects the one man rule system as unjust and calls upon the Muslims to deal justly with one another. The Qur'an sites the Pharaonic system as a bad example and rejects it completely:
‘Pharaoh was verily a tyrant in the land, and he verily was of the wanton.' 10: 83
The Qur'an rejects entirely the rule of kings:
‘She said: Verily, kings when they enter a township ruin it and make the honour of its people shame.' 27: 34
The Islamic concept of man in a social gathering views him on equal bases with the others. The criterion of excelling in the eyes of God is man's piety. The following text indicates this criterion:
‘O mankind, we created you from a single pair of a male and a female. And made you into tribes and nations that you may know each other. Verily, the most honoured of you in the sight of God is he who is most righteous of you, and God has full knowledge and is well acquainted with all things.' 41: 13
The concept of Shura in Islam prescribes the following practices:
i. Every Muslim, as a member of the Islamic Umma must be acquainted with the knowledge of Islam.
ii. Every Muslim being the essential brick in the structure of the Umma is on equal footing with the other Muslims.
iii. Every Muslim has the right and responsibility to share equally in the decision making in managing the affairs of the Umma.
iv. Decisions of the Umma are decided only by mutual consultation among all Muslims.
v. No one person, a group of persons, a minority or a majority should decide the Umma's affairs.
vi. After due mutual consultation decisions are made within the boundaries of Shari‘a.
vii. Islamic law is the final reference in the personal as well as public affairs.
viii. Public matters such as war and peace, economy and education should be congruent to Islamic Shar‘. Only when there are no clearly defined Islamic texts and the issue is left to the Umma that Muslims vote by means of consultation, counselling systems and referendums, their own decisions.
ix. No delegation or deputization or procuration of power, to one person, or a group of persons, or a party, or a minority nor a majority is allowed; for this indicates denying, as well as forfeiting, one's own rights and responsibilities to share equally in the decision-making of the affairs of the Umma that he is, directly or indirectly, subjected to.
This system of managing public affairs requires multi- sectional systems of counselling that are equal in status and responsibility to all other systems, but allows for practical participation. The Muslim must have the possibility to exercise his rights and responsibilities in the management of the affairs of the whole community.
There is more evidence within the Qur'anic text of the mutual consultation system. The messenger himself, Muhammad, was commanded to consult with the Muslims in managing their affairs. In the following verse we are informed:
‘It is through the mercy of God that you deal gently with them. But should you be rough and harsh-hearted they would have broken away from about you: so pass over their faults and ask for God's forgiveness for them, and consult them in the affairs. Then, when you have taken a decision, put your trust in God, for God loves those who put their trust in Him.' 3: 159
In practice, the messenger has always consulted the Muslims in military and social matters and has decided according to the outcome of these consultations. In all cases, of war for example, the opinion of experts who have experience and knowledge was always taken along side the consensus of the Muslims in the concerned matter.
The principle of Shura should not be applied only in public affairs but also in private ones. In the case of weaning, for example, both parents must resolve their problem by mutual consultation:
‘If they both decide on weaning, by mutual consent, and after due mutual consultation, then there is no blame on them.' 2: 233
The Islamic Umma is an integral entity where division dissention and dispute must be avoided. Relationships among Muslims must conform to a brotherly and cooperative precept. The following references denote this unity and solidarity among Muslims:
‘O you who believe… Obey God and His messenger, and fall not into disputes, lest you lose heart and your power departs; and be patient and persevering.' 8: 46
‘As for those who divide up their religion and break up into sects, you have no part in them.' 6: 159
‘O you who believe… Help you one another in righteousness and piety, but do not help one another in sin and transgression, and fear God: for God is strict in punishment.' 5: 2
Muslims should be in constant pursuit of Islamic Shari‘a and ought not to follow self desires which lead away from the right path. Whoever chooses to follow his own inclinations towards evil is led to conjecture. In the following verses we have such evidence:
‘They follow nothing but conjecture, and what their own selves desire.' 53: 23
‘But many do mislead men by their self inclinations unchecked by knowledge.' 6: 119
‘And do not follow the inclinations of the self, for they will mislead you from the path of God: as for those who wander astray from the path of God there is a grievous penalty, for that they forget the Day of Judgment.' 38: 26
In a non-Muslim model of a society man is in a state of ignorance and he survives in a jungle law. In such model man is need for control and compulsion. A ruler becomes necessary and men are not free but are subject to the dictates of the ruler, be it one person or a group of persons.
In this model the state is without and man is in a state of war against others. Being concerned with worldly gains he is forced into a competitiveness of acquisitiveness and hence in a constant sate of conflict, hatred, competition and survival becomes for the strongest, the most cunning. In such a model evil reigns and every one is for himself promoting his own interests.
The structure of society becomes inimical where brotherhood, cooperation, solidarity and friendliness disappear giving way to enmity, hatred and conflict because of material competitiveness. In such a model a strong and imposing government is needed to keep order and peace.
As we have seen above, Ibn Khaldun, In Taymiyya and al-Mawardi, as well as the Shiite theory of Imama, base their personal suppositions for the absolute need for a one man ruler, on such a society.
Administrative body
In the Islamic Umma an administration is established in order to manage people's affairs in economy, military and social issues. It is the guardian of religion. Its main function is to implement Shari‘a and resolve problems of the Muslims according to Islamic law. Its function is to implement also whatever decisions are taken by the Umma with regard to issues that are not denoted by Shari‘a as in political issues like war and peace, economic issues where poverty and riches are not allowed and the circulation of wealth should be applied among all Muslims, social issues where status and distinction as well as social hierarchy should not be established. The administration maintains the security of the Umma and applies the hudud (limits referring to Punishment). E
